English
Grammar, Literary Devices, Essay Writing, and Critical Reading
Table of Contents
1. Advanced Grammar
Verb Tenses Review
| Tense | Simple | Progressive | Perfect |
|---|---|---|---|
| Past | wrote | was writing | had written |
| Present | write/writes | is/am writing | has/have written |
| Future | will write | will be writing | will have written |
Active vs Passive Voice
Active Voice
Subject performs the action
"The student wrote the essay."
Passive Voice
Subject receives the action
"The essay was written by the student."
Clauses
Independent Clause
Can stand alone as a complete sentence
"She studied hard."
Dependent (Subordinate) Clause
Cannot stand alone; needs an independent clause
"Because she studied hard, she passed the test."
Common Subordinating Conjunctions
because, although, if, when, while, since, before, after, unless, until, even though, whereas
2. Literary Devices
Simile
Comparison using "like" or "as"
"Her eyes sparkled like diamonds."
Metaphor
Direct comparison without "like" or "as"
"Life is a journey."
Personification
Giving human qualities to non-human things
"The wind whispered through the trees."
Hyperbole
Extreme exaggeration for effect
"I've told you a million times!"
Irony
Verbal: Saying opposite of what you mean (sarcasm)
Situational: Unexpected outcome
Dramatic: Audience knows something characters don't
Alliteration
Repetition of initial consonant sounds
"Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers."
Onomatopoeia
Words that imitate sounds
"The bees buzzed, the water splashed."
Symbolism
Using objects to represent ideas
A dove represents peace; a rose represents love.
Foreshadowing
Hints about future events
"Little did they know what awaited them..."
3. Literature Elements
Plot Structure
1. Exposition: Introduction of characters, setting, background
2. Rising Action: Conflicts and complications develop
3. Climax: Turning point, highest tension
4. Falling Action: Events after climax, moving toward resolution
5. Resolution/Denouement: Conflict resolved, ending
Types of Conflict
Internal Conflict
Person vs. Self - Struggling with own emotions, decisions
External Conflicts
- Person vs. Person - Against another character
- Person vs. Nature - Against natural forces
- Person vs. Society - Against social norms
Point of View
| POV | Pronouns | Description |
|---|---|---|
| First Person | I, me, we | Narrator is a character in the story |
| Second Person | You, your | Reader is addressed directly (rare) |
| Third Person Limited | He, she, they | Knows one character's thoughts |
| Third Person Omniscient | He, she, they | Knows all characters' thoughts |
Literary Genres
Fiction
Novel, Short Story
Non-Fiction
Essay, Biography
Poetry
Sonnet, Haiku, Epic
Drama
Play, Tragedy, Comedy
Folklore
Legend, Myth, Fable
4. Essay Writing
Basic Essay Structure
1. Introduction
- • Hook - Grab reader's attention
- • Background information
- • Thesis Statement - Main argument (last sentence)
2. Body Paragraphs (3+)
- • Topic Sentence - Main idea of paragraph
- • Evidence/Examples - Support the topic sentence
- • Analysis - Explain how evidence supports thesis
- • Transition - Connect to next paragraph
3. Conclusion
- • Restate thesis (different words)
- • Summarize main points
- • Final thought/Call to action
Types of Essays
Narrative
Tells a story with beginning, middle, end
Descriptive
Paints a picture using sensory details
Expository
Explains or informs about a topic
Persuasive/Argumentative
Convinces reader of a position
5. Critical Reading
Reading Strategies
- Preview: Scan title, headings, images before reading
- Question: Turn headings into questions to answer
- Read: Read actively, look for answers to questions
- Recite: Summarize in your own words
- Review: Look back and check understanding
Types of Questions
Literal
Directly stated in text. "What happened? Who did it?"
Inferential
Read between the lines. "Why did the character...?"
Evaluative
Make judgments. "Do you agree? Is this effective?"
Identifying Author's Purpose
Inform
Provide facts and information
Persuade
Convince reader of something
Entertain
Amuse or engage the reader
6. Vocabulary Development
Context Clues
| Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | Word is defined in text | "Photosynthesis, the process of making food from sunlight..." |
| Synonym | Similar word nearby | "The luminous, bright star..." |
| Antonym | Opposite word nearby | "Not cheerful but morose..." |
| Example | Examples given | "Citrus fruits, such as oranges and lemons..." |
Word Roots
Greek Roots
- bio = life (biology)
- graph = write (paragraph)
- photo = light (photograph)
- tele = far (telephone)
- auto = self (automatic)
Latin Roots
- dict = say (dictionary)
- rupt = break (interrupt)
- port = carry (transport)
- scrib/script = write (describe)
- vid/vis = see (vision)
Key Takeaways
- ✓Simile uses "like/as"; Metaphor does NOT
- ✓Plot: Exposition → Rising Action → Climax → Falling Action → Resolution
- ✓Thesis statement = main argument (end of intro)
- ✓First person = I, me; Third person = he, she, they
- ✓3 types of irony: Verbal, Situational, Dramatic
- ✓Active voice: Subject does action; Passive voice: Subject receives action
- ✓Author's purpose: Inform, Persuade, or Entertain
- ✓Use context clues to determine word meaning