Major Psychological Theories
Psychoanalytic, Behaviorism, Humanistic & Cognitive Perspectives
In This Section
1. Historical Foundations
The Birth of Psychology
Psychology emerged as a distinct scientific discipline in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundtestablished the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany.
Structuralism (Wundt, Titchener)
- • Focus on structure of consciousness
- • Method: Introspection
- • Break down mental experiences into elements
- • Criticized for subjectivity
Functionalism (James, Dewey)
- • Focus on function of consciousness
- • Influenced by Darwin's evolution
- • "What does behavior accomplish?"
- • Applied psychology emphasis
Major Perspectives Overview
| Perspective | Focus | Key Figures | Era |
|---|---|---|---|
| Psychoanalytic | Unconscious mind, early experiences | Freud, Jung, Adler | 1890s-1930s |
| Behaviorism | Observable behavior, learning | Watson, Skinner, Pavlov | 1910s-1960s |
| Humanistic | Free will, self-actualization | Maslow, Rogers | 1950s-1970s |
| Cognitive | Mental processes, thinking | Piaget, Beck, Ellis | 1960s-present |
| Biological | Brain, genetics, neurotransmitters | Various neuroscientists | 1980s-present |
2. Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
The founder of psychoanalysis. Emphasized the role of unconscious processes, early childhood experiences, and sexual/aggressive drives in shaping personality and behavior.
Levels of Consciousness (Topographical Model)
Conscious
Current awareness; thoughts and perceptions you're aware of now
Preconscious
Memories and thoughts that can be easily brought to consciousness
Unconscious
Repressed memories, primitive desires, hidden feelings
Structure of Personality (Structural Model)
Id
Pleasure Principle
- • Present at birth
- • Operates unconsciously
- • Immediate gratification
- • Contains libido and thanatos
Ego
Reality Principle
- • Develops ~age 1
- • Mediates id/superego
- • Rational, logical
- • Uses defense mechanisms
Superego
Morality Principle
- • Develops ~age 5 (Oedipal)
- • Conscience + ego-ideal
- • Internalized standards
- • Seeks perfection
Psychosexual Stages
| Stage | Age | Erogenous Zone | Fixation Results |
|---|---|---|---|
| Oral | 0-1 year | Mouth (sucking, biting) | Smoking, overeating, dependency |
| Anal | 1-3 years | Anus (elimination) | Anal-retentive (orderly) or anal-expulsive (messy) |
| Phallic | 3-6 years | Genitals | Oedipus/Electra complex; gender identity issues |
| Latency | 6-12 years | None (dormant) | Sexual feelings repressed; social skills develop |
| Genital | 12+ years | Genitals (mature) | Mature sexual intimacy if prior stages resolved |
Defense Mechanisms
Unconscious strategies the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety arising from conflicts between id, superego, and reality.
Repression
Pushing threatening thoughts into the unconscious (primary defense)
Denial
Refusing to acknowledge reality of threatening situation
Projection
Attributing one's unacceptable thoughts/feelings to others
Displacement
Redirecting emotions to a safer, substitute target
Sublimation
Converting unacceptable impulses into socially valued behavior (mature)
Rationalization
Creating logical explanations for irrational behavior
Reaction Formation
Expressing the opposite of true feelings
Regression
Returning to earlier stage of development when stressed
Neo-Freudians
Carl Jung (1875-1961)
- Analytical Psychology
- • Personal + Collective Unconscious
- • Archetypes (anima/animus, shadow, self, persona)
- • Introversion vs Extroversion
- • Individuation process
Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
- Individual Psychology
- • Inferiority complex → Striving for superiority
- • Birth order effects
- • Social interest (Gemeinschaftsgefühl)
- • Lifestyle analysis
Karen Horney (1885-1952)
- • Basic anxiety (childhood insecurity)
- • 10 neurotic needs
- • Moving toward/against/away from people
- • Critique of Freud's female psychology
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
- Psychosocial Development
- • 8 stages across lifespan
- • Social/cultural influences emphasized
- • Identity crisis in adolescence
- • Epigenetic principle
3. Behaviorism
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
Learning through association. A neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.
Key Terms
UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus)
Naturally triggers response (food)
UCR (Unconditioned Response)
Natural, unlearned response (salivation to food)
CS (Conditioned Stimulus)
Previously neutral stimulus (bell)
CR (Conditioned Response)
Learned response to CS (salivation to bell)
Processes
- Acquisition: Initial learning; CS + UCS pairing
- Extinction: CS presented alone; CR diminishes
- Spontaneous Recovery: CR returns after rest period
- Generalization: CR to similar stimuli
- Discrimination: Distinguishing between stimuli
- Higher-Order Conditioning: CS becomes UCS for new learning
Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
Learning through consequences. Behavior is shaped by reinforcement and punishment.
Reinforcement & Punishment
| Add Stimulus | Remove Stimulus | |
|---|---|---|
| Increase Behavior | Positive Reinforcement (Add pleasant → behavior ↑) | Negative Reinforcement (Remove unpleasant → behavior ↑) |
| Decrease Behavior | Positive Punishment (Add unpleasant → behavior ↓) | Negative Punishment (Remove pleasant → behavior ↓) |
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Reinforcement after set number of responses. High response rate, pause after reinforcement.
Variable Ratio (VR)
Reinforcement after variable number. Highest, steady rate. Most resistant to extinction (gambling).
Fixed Interval (FI)
First response after set time. Scallop pattern—increased responding near interval end.
Variable Interval (VI)
First response after variable time. Slow, steady rate. Checking email example.
Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
Learning through observation and modeling. Cognitive processes mediate between stimulus and response.
Bobo Doll Experiment (1961)
Children who observed aggressive adult behavior imitated that aggression when given the opportunity, especially when the model was rewarded.
Key Concepts
Observational Learning
- 1. Attention (notice model)
- 2. Retention (remember behavior)
- 3. Reproduction (ability to perform)
- 4. Motivation (reason to imitate)
Reciprocal Determinism
Behavior, personal factors, and environment all influence each other bidirectionally.
Person ↔ Behavior ↔ Environment
Self-Efficacy
Belief in one's capability to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific outcomes. Sources: mastery experiences, vicarious learning, verbal persuasion, physiological states.
4. Humanistic Psychology
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
Hierarchy of Needs
5. Self-Actualization
Reaching full potential, peak experiences
4. Esteem Needs
Achievement, recognition, respect, confidence
3. Love/Belonging Needs
Friendship, intimacy, family, social connection
2. Safety Needs
Security, stability, health, property, employment
1. Physiological Needs
Food, water, air, sleep, shelter, warmth
Self-Actualized Characteristics
- • Peak experiences
- • Problem-centered (not self-centered)
- • Acceptance of self and others
- • Spontaneity and creativity
- • Autonomy and independence
- • Deep interpersonal relationships
- • Democratic character
- • Unhostile sense of humor
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Person-Centered Theory
Humans have an inherent tendency toward growth and self-actualization (actualizing tendency). Psychological problems arise from incongruence between self-concept and experience.
Key Concepts
- Self-Concept: How we perceive ourselves
- Ideal Self: Who we want to be
- Congruence: Match between self-concept and experience
- Conditions of Worth: Others' expectations internalized
Core Conditions for Therapy
- Unconditional Positive Regard: Accept client without judgment
- Empathy: Understand client's perspective
- Genuineness/Congruence: Therapist is authentic
Fully Functioning Person
- • Open to experience
- • Lives in the present (existential living)
- • Trusts own feelings and instincts
- • Creative and adaptive
- • Lives richly and fully
5. Cognitive Psychology
Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development
Children actively construct understanding of the world through schemas, assimilation, and accommodation.
Key Processes
- Schema: Mental framework for organizing information
- Assimilation: Fitting new info into existing schema
- Accommodation: Modifying schema to fit new info
- Equilibration: Balance between assimilation and accommodation
(Piaget's stages covered in detail in Developmental Psychology section)
Cognitive Therapy Approaches
Albert Ellis - REBT
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy focuses on identifying and changing irrational beliefs.
ABC Model
- A: Activating event
- B: Beliefs (irrational)
- C: Consequences (emotional)
- D: Disputing beliefs
- E: Effective new beliefs
Aaron Beck - Cognitive Therapy
Focus on identifying and changing distorted thinking patterns.
Cognitive Distortions
- • All-or-nothing thinking
- • Overgeneralization
- • Catastrophizing
- • Mind reading
- • Personalization
Information Processing
Input → Encoding → Storage → Retrieval → Output
Sensory Memory
Brief storage (seconds); iconic (visual), echoic (auditory)
Short-Term/Working Memory
Limited capacity (7±2); duration ~20 sec without rehearsal
Long-Term Memory
Unlimited capacity; declarative (explicit) vs procedural (implicit)
6. Biological Perspective
Neuroscience Foundations
Behavior and mental processes are explained through brain function, genetics, neurotransmitters, and biological processes.
Key Neurotransmitters
- Dopamine: Pleasure, reward, movement
- Serotonin: Mood, sleep, appetite
- Norepinephrine: Alertness, arousal
- GABA: Inhibitory, anxiety reduction
- Acetylcholine: Memory, muscle movement
- Endorphins: Pain relief, pleasure
Brain Structures
- Prefrontal cortex: Executive function, planning
- Hippocampus: Memory formation
- Amygdala: Emotion, especially fear
- Hypothalamus: Homeostasis, drives
- Limbic system: Emotion, motivation
Genetics & Behavior
- Behavioral Genetics: Study of genetic and environmental contributions to behavior
- Heritability: Proportion of variation attributable to genetic factors
- Twin Studies: Compare MZ (identical) vs DZ (fraternal) twins
- Adoption Studies: Separate genetic from environmental influences
7. Sociocultural Perspective
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Cognitive development is fundamentally a social process. Learning occurs through interaction with more knowledgeable others.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Gap between what learner can do alone vs. with guidance
Scaffolding
Support provided by more knowledgeable other
Private Speech
Self-talk that guides behavior (becomes inner speech)
Cultural Tools
Language, symbols, skills passed through culture
Cross-Cultural Psychology
Individualism
Western cultures; personal goals, independence, self-expression
Collectivism
Asian/Filipino cultures; group harmony, interdependence
8. Integration & Applications
Eclectic/Integrative Approach
Modern psychology recognizes that no single theory explains all behavior. An integrative approach uses concepts from multiple perspectives based on the individual and situation.
Biopsychosocial Model
Behavior and mental processes are best understood through the interaction of biological (genetics, brain), psychological (thoughts, emotions), and social (culture, relationships) factors.
Filipino Psychology (Sikolohiyang Pilipino)
Founded by Virgilio Enriquez as an indigenous psychology rooted in Filipino culture, language, and values.
Core Values
- • Kapwa (shared identity)
- • Pakikisama (smooth relations)
- • Hiya (shame/propriety)
- • Utang na loob (debt of gratitude)
Research Methods
- • Pakikipagkuwentuhan (conversation)
- • Pagtatanung-tanong (inquiry)
- • Indigenous concepts
- • Filipino as medium
Key Takeaways
- ✓Freud: Id/Ego/Superego, psychosexual stages, defense mechanisms
- ✓Pavlov: Classical conditioning (CS + UCS → CR)
- ✓Skinner: Operant conditioning, reinforcement schedules
- ✓Bandura: Social learning, self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism
- ✓Maslow: Hierarchy of needs (physiological → self-actualization)
- ✓Rogers: UPR, empathy, congruence in person-centered therapy
- ✓Beck/Ellis: Cognitive distortions, ABC model
- ✓Modern approach: Biopsychosocial model integrates perspectives